1.2 Problematization The issue with Graduate Employability is that it is a complex and multifaceted concept, which evolves with time and can easily cause confusion. Moreover, in the context of flexible and competitive globalisation, the highly educated may find themselves forming part of an increasingly disenfranchised new middle class, continually at the mercy of agile, cost-driven flows in skilled labour, and in competition with contemporaries from newly emerging economies. Structural Functionalism/ Consensus Theory. Over time, however, this traditional link between HE and the labour market has been ruptured. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative, Over 10 million scientific documents at your fingertips, Not logged in Consensus v. conflict perspectives -Consensus Theory In general, this theory states that laws reflect general agreement in society. Hall, P.A. Perhaps increasingly central to the changing dynamic between HE and the labour market has been the issue of graduate employability. Personal characteristics, habits, and attitudes influence how you interact with others. The purpose of this article is to show that the way employability is typically defined in official statements is seriously flawed because it ignores what will be called the 'duality of employability'. (2003) Class Strategies and the Education Market: The Middle Classes and Social Advantage, London: Routledge. Most significantly, they may be better able to demonstrate the appropriate personality package increasingly valued in the more elite organisations (Brown and Hesketh, 2004; Brown and Lauder, 2009). For instance, non-traditional students who had studied at local institutions may be far more likely to fix their career goals around local labour markets, some of which may afford limited opportunities for career progression. Relatively high levels of personal investment are required to enhance one's employment profile and credentials, and to ensure that a return is made on one's investment in study. Graduate employability is clearly a problem that goes far wider than formal participation in HE, and is heavily bound up in the coordination, regulation and management of graduate employment through the course of graduate working lives. Thetable below has been compiled by a range of UK-based companies (see company details at the end of this guide), and it lists the Top 10 Employability Skills which they look for in potential employees - that means you! Similar to Holmes (2001) work, such research illustrates that graduates career progression rests on the extent to which they can achieve affirmed and legitimated identities within their working lives. The label consensus theory of truth is currently attached to a number of otherwise very diverse philosophical perspectives. Bowman, H., Colley, H. and Hodkinson, P. (2005) Employability and Career Progression of Fulltime UK Masters Students: Final Report for the Higher Education Careers Services Unit, Leeds: Lifelong Learning Institute. Teichler, U. This is then linked to research that has examined the way in which students and graduates are managing the transition into the labour market. (1972) Graduates: The Sociology of an Elite, London: Methuen. The end of work and its commentators, The Sociological Review 55 (1): 81103. Longitudinal research on graduates transitions to the labour market (Holden and Hamblett, 2007; Nabi et al., 2010) also illustrates that graduates initial experiences of the labour market can confirm or disrupt emerging work-related identities. If we were to consider the same scenario mentioned above, conflict theorists would approach it much more differently. Brennan, J., Kogan, M. and Teichler, U. Understanding both of these theories can help us to better understand the complexities of society and the various factors that shape social relationships and institutions. The new UK coalition government, working within a framework of budgetary constraints, have been less committed to expansion and have begun capping student numbers (HEFCE, 2010). The second relates to the biases employers harbour around different graduates from different universities in terms of these universities relative so-called reputational capital (Harvey et al., 1997; Brown and Hesketh, 2004). Various stakeholders involved in HE be they policymakers, employers and paying students all appear to be demanding clear and tangible outcomes in response to increasing economic stakes. Moreover, individual graduates may need to reflexively align themselves to the new challenges of labour market, from which they can make appropriate decisions around their future career development and their general life courses. In all cases, as these researchers illustrate, narrow checklists of skills appear to play little part in informing employers recruitment decisions, nor in determining graduates employment outcomes. This tends to manifest itself in the form of positional conflict and competition between different groups of graduates competing for highly sought-after forms of employment (Brown and Hesketh, 2004). It appears that students and graduates reflect upon their relationship with the labour market and what they might need to achieve their goals. (2007) Does higher education matter? The past decade has witnessed a strong emphasis on employability skills, with the rationale that universities equip students with the skills demanded by employers. (2004) The Mismangement of Talent: Employability and Jobs in the Knowledge-Based Economy, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Both policymakers and employers have looked to exert a stronger influence on the HE agenda, particularly around its formal provisions, in order to ensure that graduates leaving HE are fit-for-purpose (Teichler, 1999, 2007; Harvey, 2000). Google Scholar. It is clear that more coordinated occupational labour markets such as those found in continental Europe (e.g., Germany, Holland and France) tend to have a stronger level of coupling between individuals level of education and their allocation to specific types of jobs (Hansen, 2011). The problem of managing one's future employability is therefore seen largely as being up to the individual graduate. Indeed, there appears a need for further research on the overall management of graduate careers over the longer-term course of their careers. Rather than being insulated from these new challenges, highly educated graduates are likely to be at the sharp end of the increasing intensification of work, and its associated pressures around continual career management. However, conflict theorists view the . The consensus theory of employability states that enhancing graduates' employability and advancing their careers requires improving their human capital, specifically their skill development . Employability is sometimes discussed in the context of the CareerEDGE model. Savage, M. (2003) A new class paradigm? British Journal of Sociology of Education 24 (4): 535541. Little ( 2001 ) suggests, that it is a multi-dimensional construct, and there is a demand to separate between the factors relevant to the occupation and readying for work. Young, M. (2009) Education, globalisation and the voice of knowledge, Journal of Education and Work 22 (3): 193204. Moreover, this is likely to shape their orientations towards the labour market, potentially affecting their overall trajectories and outcomes. (1996) Higher Education and Work, London: Jessica Kingsley. Introduction The theory of employability can be difficult to identify; there can be many factors that contribute to the idea of being employable. These concerns seem to be percolating down to graduates perceptions and strategies for adapting to the new positional competition. In sociological debates, consensus theory has been seen as in opposition to conflict theory. This is further likely to be mediated by national labour market structures in different national settings that differentially regulate the position and status of graduates in the economy. PubMedGoogle Scholar, Tomlinson, M. Graduate Employability: A Review of Conceptual and Empirical Themes. For Brown and Hesketh (2004), however, graduates respond differently according to their existing values, beliefs and understandings. As Clarke (2008) illustrates, the employability discourse reflects the increasing onus on individual employees to continually build up their repositories of knowledge and skills in an era when their career progression is less anchored around single organisations and specific job types. This paper analyses the barriers to work faced by long- and short-term unemployed people in remote rural labour markets. This insight, combined with a growing consensus that government should try to stabilize employment, has led to much Once characterised as a social elite (Kelsall et al., 1972), their status as occupants of an exclusive and well-preserved core of technocratic, professional and managerial jobs has been challenged by structural shifts in both HE and the economy. Bowers-Brown, T. and Harvey, L. (2004) Are there too many graduates in the UK? Industry and Higher Education 18 (4): 243254. Compelling evidence on employers approaches to managing graduate talent (Brown and Hesketh, 2004) exposes this situation quite starkly. Taylor, J. and Pick, D. (2008) The work orientations of Australian university students, Journal of Education and Work 21 (5): 405421. Much of the graduate employability focus has been on supply-side responses towards enhancing graduates skills for the labour market. A range of other research has also exposed the variability within and between graduates in different national contexts (Edvardsson Stiwne and Alves, 2010; Puhakka et al., 2010). These changes have added increasing complexities to graduates transition into the labour market, as well as the traditional link between graduation and subsequent labour market reward. Kirton, G. (2009) Career plans and aspirations of recent black and minority ethnic business graduates, Work, Employment and Society 23 (1): 1229. Many graduates are increasingly turning to voluntary work, internship schemes and international travel in order to enhance their employability narratives and potentially convert them into labour market advantage. The evidence suggests that some graduates assume the status of knowledge workers more than others, as reflected in the differential range of outcomes and opportunities they experience. Brown, P. and Hesketh, A.J. If individuals are able to capitalise upon their education and training, and adopt relatively flexible and proactive approaches to their working lives, then they will experience favourable labour market returns and conditions. Prior to this, Harvey ( 2001 ) has defined employability in assorted ways from single and institutional positions. (2010) Higher Education Funding for Academic Years 200910 and 201011 Including New Student Entrants, Bristol: HEFCE. In a similar vein, Greenbank (2007) also reported concerns among working-class graduates of perceived deficiencies in the cultural and social capital needed to access specific types of jobs. Examines employability through the lenses of consensus theory and conflict theory. Taken-for-granted assumptions about a job for life, if ever they existed, appear to have given away to genuine concerns over the anticipated need to be employable. Individuals therefore need to proactively manage these risks (Beck and Beck-Gernsheim, 2002). The theory of employability refers to the concept that an individual's ability to secure and maintain employment is not solely dependent on their technical skills and job-specific knowledge, but also on a set of broader personal attributes and characteristics. These attributes, sometimes referred to as "employability skills," are thought to be . These concerns have been given renewed focus in the current climate of wider labour market uncertainty. They also include the professional skills that enable you to be successful in the workplace. Functionalism is a structural theory and posits that the social institutions and organization of society . The final aim is to logically distinguish . (2009) The Bologna Process in Higher Education in Europe: Key Indicators on the Social Dimension and Mobility, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Furthermore, HEIs have increasingly become wedded to a range of internal and external market forces, with their activities becoming more attuned to the demands of both employers and the new student consumer (Naidoo and Jamieson, 2005; Marginson, 2007). In the context of a knowledge economy, consensus theory advocates that knowledge, skills and innovation are the driving factors of our society. Keynes' theory of employment is a demand-deficient theory. An example of this is the family. While some of these graduates appear to be using their extra studies as a platform for extending their potential career scope, for others it is additional time away from the job market and can potentially confirm that sense of ambivalence towards it. Non-traditional graduates or new recruits to the middle classes may be less skilled at reading the changing demands of employers (Savage, 2003; Reay et al., 2006). Critically inclined commentators have also gone as far as to argue that the skills agenda is somewhat token and that skills built into formal HE curricula are a poor relation to the real and embodied depositions that traditional academic, middle-class graduates have acquired through their education and wider lifestyles (Ainley, 1994). Ideally, graduates would be able to possess both the hard currencies in the form of traditional academic qualifications together with soft currencies in the form of cultural and interpersonal qualities. Research into university graduates perceptions of the labour market illustrates that they are increasingly adopting individualised discourses (Moreau and Leathwood, 2006; Tomlinson, 2007; Taylor and Pick, 2008) around their future employment. . Wider critiques of skills policy (Wolf, 2007) have tended to challenge naive conceptualisations of skills, bringing into question both their actual relationship to employee practices and the extent to which they are likely to be genuinely demand-led. Employability depends on your knowledge, skills and attitudes, how you use those assets, and how you present them to employers. - 91.200.32.231. research investigating employability from the employers' perspective has been qualitative in nature. Leadbetter, C. (2000) Living on Thin Air, London: Penguin. There is no shortage of evidence about what employers expect and demand from graduates, although the extent to which their rhetoric is matched with genuine commitment to both facilitating and further developing graduates existing skills is more questionable. Their location within their respective fields of employment, and the level of support they receive from employers towards developing this, may inevitably have a considerable bearing upon their wider labour market experiences. Maria Eliophotou Menon, Eleftheria Argyropoulou & Andreas Stylianou, Ly Thi Tran, Nga Thi Hang Ngo, Tien Thi Hanh Ho, David Walters, David Zarifa & Brittany Etmanski, Jason L. Brown, Sara J. The transition from HE to work is perceived to be a potentially hazardous one that needs to be negotiated with more astute planning, preparation and foresight. One is the pre-existing level of social and cultural capital that these graduates possess, which opens up greater opportunities. Elias, P. and Purcell, K. (2004) The Earnings of Graduates in Their Early Careers: Researching Graduates Seven Years on. Morley (2001) however states that employability is not just about . In some countries, for instance Germany, HE is a clearer investment as evinced in marked wage and opportunity differences between graduate and non-graduate forms of employment. Scott, P. (2005) Universities and the knowledge economy, Minerva 43 (3): 297309. However, this raises significant issues over the extent to which graduates may be fully utilising their existing skills and credentials, and the extent to which they may be over-educated for many jobs that traditionally did not demand graduate-level qualifications. Bourdieu, P. (1977) Outline of a Theory of Practice, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Structural functionalists believe that society tends towards equilibrium and social order. Fugate and Kinicki (2008, p.9) describe career identity as "one's self-definition in the career context."Chope and Johnson (2008, p. 47) define career identity in a more scientific manner where they state that "career identity reflects the degree to which individuals define themselves in terms of a particular organisation, job, profession, or industry". Employability is a concept that has attracted greater interest in the past two decades as Higher Education (HE) looks to ensure that its output is valued by a range of stakeholders, not least Central . . Advancement in technological innovation requires the application of technical skills and knowledge; thus, attracting and retaining talented knowledge workers have become crucial for incumbent firms . . Cardiff School of Social Sciences Working Paper 118. For some graduates, HE continues to be a clear route towards traditional middle-class employment and lifestyle; yet for others it may amount to little more than an opportunity cost. Mason, G. (2002) High skills utilisation under mass higher education: Graduate employment in the service industries in Britain, Journal of Education and Work 14 (4): 427456. The relatively stable and coherent employment narratives that individuals traditionally enjoyed have given way to more fractured and uncertain employment futures brought about by the intensity and inherent precariousness of the new short-term, transactional capitalism (Strangleman, 2007). Teichler, U. It first relates the theme of graduate employability to the changing dynamic in the relationship between HE and the labour market, and the changing role of HE in regulating graduate-level work. In the more flexible UK market, it is more about flexibly adapting one's existing educational profile and credentials to a more competitive and open labour market context. According to conflict theory, employability represents an attempt to legitimate unequal opportunities in education, labour market at a time of growing income inequalities. Such dispositions have developed through their life-course and intuitively guide them towards certain career goals. Employers and Universities: Conceptual Dimensions, Research Evidence and Implications, Reconceptualising employability of returnees: what really matters and strategic navigating approaches, Relations between graduates learning experiences and employment outcomes: a cautionary note for institutional performance indicators, The Effects of a Masters Degree on Wage and Job Satisfaction in Massified Higher Education: The Case of South Korea. Yet at a time when stakes within the labour market have risen, graduates are likely to demand that this link becomes a more tangible one. Again, graduates respond to the challenges of increasing flexibility, individualisation and positional competition in different ways. The correspondence between HE and the labour market rests largely around three main dimensions: (i) in terms of the knowledge and skills that HE transfers to graduates and which then feeds back into the labour market, (ii) the legitimatisation of credentials that serve as signifiers to employers and enable them to screen prospective future employees and (iii) the enrichment of personal and cultural attributes, or what might be seen as personality. They nevertheless remain committed to HE as a key economic driver, although with a new emphasis on further rationalising the system through cutting-back university services, stricter prioritisation of funding allocation and higher levels of student financial contribution towards HE through the lifting of the threshold of university fee contribution (DFE, 2010). The past decade in the United Kingdom has therefore seen a strong focus on employability skills, including communication, teamworking, ICT and self-management being built into formal curricula. X@vFuyfDdf(^vIm%h>IX, OIDq8 - Throughout, the paper explores some of the dominant conceptual themes informing discussion and research on graduate employability, in particular human capital, skills, social reproduction, positional conflict and identity. Graduates increasing propensity towards lifelong learning appears to reflect a realisation that the active management of their employability is a career-wide project that will prevail over their longer-term course of their employment. Studies of non-traditional students show that while they make natural, intuitive choices based on the logics of their class background, they are also highly conscious that the labour market entails sets of middle-class values and rules that may potentially alienate them. There are many different lists of cardinal accomplishments . % . conventional / consensus perspective that places . This has coincided with the movement towards more flexible labour markets, the overall contraction of management forms of employment, an increasing intensification in global competition for skilled labour and increased state-driven attempts to maximise the outputs of the university system (Harvey, 2000; Brown and Lauder, 2009). (2005) study, it appears that some graduates horizons for action are set within by largely intuitive notions of what is appropriate and available, based on what are likely to be highly subjective opportunity structures. (2009) Over-education and the skills of UK graduates, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 172 (2): 307337. As such, these identities and dispositions are likely to shape graduates action frames, including their decisions to embark upon various career routes. It appears that the wider educational profile of the graduate is likely to have a significant bearing on their future labour market outcomes. Consensus theory, on the other hand, looks at how individuals interact and how this can lead to agreement. Wider structural changes have potentially reinforced positional differences and differential outcomes between graduates, not least those from different class-cultural backgrounds. Ainley, P. (1994) Degrees of Difference, London: Lawrence Washart. The decline of the established graduate career trajectory has somewhat disrupted the traditional link between HE, graduate credentials and occupational rewards (Ainley, 1994; Brown and Hesketh, 2004). Furlong, A. and Cartmel, F. (2005) Graduates from Disadvantaged Backgrounds: Early Labour Market Experiences, York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation. The most discernable changes in HE have been its gradual massification over the past three decades and, in more recent times, the move towards greater individual expenditure towards HE in the form of student fees. The more recent policy in the United Kingdom towards raising fee levels has coincided with an economic downturn, generating concerns over the value and returns of a university degree. Rae, D. (2007) Connecting enterprise and graduate employability: Challenges to the higher education curriculum and culture, Education + Training 49 (8/9): 605619. Strathdee, R. (2011) Educational reform, inequality and the structure of higher education in New Zealand, Journal of Education and Work 24 (1): 2749. Based on society's agreement - or consensus - on our shared norms and values, individuals are happy to stick to the rules for the sake of the greater good.Ultimately, this helps us achieve social order and stability. (2005) Empowering participants or corroding learning: Towards a research agenda on the impact of student consumerism in higher education, Journal of Education Policy 20 (3): 267281. Barrie, S. (2006) Understanding what we mean by generic attributes of graduates, Higher Education 51 (2): 215241. Recent comparative evidence seems to support this and points to significant differences between graduates in different national settings (Brennan and Tang, 2008; Little and Archer, 2010). Variations in graduates labour market returns appear to be influenced by a range of factors, framing the way graduates construct their employability. These concerns may further feed into students approaches to HE more generally, increasingly characterised by more instrumental, consumer-driven and acquisitive learning approaches (Naidoo and Jamieson, 2005). ISSN 2039-9340 (print) ISSN 2039-2117 (online) Return to Article Details Graduate Employability Skills: Differences between the Private and the Public Sector in South Africa Download Download PDF Graduate Employability Skills: Differences between the Private and the Public Sector in South Africa Download Download PDF Morley (2001) however states that employability . Present study overcomes this issue by introducing a framework that clearly By reductio ad absurdum, Keynes demonstrates that the predictions of Classical theory do not accord with the observed response of workers to changes in real wages. The global move towards mass HE is resulting in a much wider body of graduates in arguably a crowded graduate labour market. Becker, G. (1993) Human Capital: Theoretical and Empirical Analysis with Special Reference to Education (3rd edn), Chicago: Chicago University Press. In flexible labour markets, such as the United Kingdom this remains high. The issue of graduate employability tends to rest within the increasing economisation of HE. Employability. Bowman et al. Consequently, they will have to embark upon increasingly uncertain employment futures, continually having to respond to the changing demands of internal and external labour markets. The challenge for graduate employees is to develop strategies that militate against such likelihoods. express the aim not to focus on the 'superiority of a single theory in understanding employability' (p. 897), . Brennan, J. and Tang, W. (2008) The Employment of UK Graduates: A Comparison with Europe, London: The Open University. Crucially, these emerging identities frame the ways they attempt to manage their future employability and position themselves towards anticipated future labour market challenges. A common theme has been state-led attempts to increasingly tighten the relationship and attune HE more closely to the economy, which itself is set within wider discourse around economic change. His theory is thus known as demand-oriented approach. Needless to say, critics of supply-side and skills-centred approaches have challenged the somewhat simplistic, descriptive and under-contextualised accounts of graduate skills. Consensus Theory The consensus theory is based on the propositions that technological innovation is the driving . The Routledge International Handbook of Sociology of Education, London: Routledge, pp. It is also considered as both a product (a set of skills that enable) and as a . This paper will increase the understandings of graduate employability through interpreting its meaning and whose responsibility . The different orientations students are developing appear to be derived from emerging identities and self-perceptions as future employees, as well as from wider biographical dimensions of the student. High Educ Policy 25, 407431 (2012). The extent to which future work forms a significant part of their future life goals is likely to determine how they approach the labour market, as well as their own future employability. The relationship between HE and the labour market has traditionally been a closely corresponding one, although in sometimes loose and intangible ways (Brennan et al., 1996; Johnston, 2003). Moreover, this may well influence the ways in which they understand and attempt to manage their future employability. Individuals have to flexibly adapt to a job market that places increasing expectation and demands on them; in short, they need to continually maintain their employability. Under consensus theory the absence of conflict is seen as the equilibrium . While at one level the correspondence between HE and the labour market has become blurred by these various structural changes, there has also been something of a tightening of the relationship. The underlying assumption of this view is that the Employment in Academia: To What Extent Are Recent Doctoral Graduates of Various Fields of Study Obtaining Permanent Versus Temporary Academic Jobs in Canada? Perhaps significantly, their research shows that graduates occupy a broad range of jobs and occupations, some of which are more closely matched to the archetype of the traditional graduate profession. The theory of post war consensus has been used by political historians and political scientists to explain and understand British political developments in the era between 1945 and 1979. This study examines these two theories and makes competing predictions about the role of knowledge workers in moderating the . 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New Student Entrants, Bristol: HEFCE a product ( a set of that... And as a challenges of increasing flexibility, individualisation and positional competition evidence on employers to... In which they understand and attempt to manage their future employability defined employability in assorted ways from single institutional! M. ( 2003 ) a new Class paradigm traditional link between HE and the labour market and they. ) exposes this situation quite starkly ( 2004 ), however, graduates to... Research that has examined the way graduates construct their employability issue of graduate employability focus has qualitative... For further research on the overall management of graduate careers over the longer-term course of their careers is the level. Their overall trajectories and outcomes ; are thought to be this may well influence the ways in students!, individualisation and positional competition in different ways, U its meaning and whose responsibility this situation quite.... 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Least those from different class-cultural backgrounds on employers approaches to managing graduate Talent ( Brown and Hesketh 2004... Challenges of increasing flexibility, individualisation and positional competition in different ways that the wider profile... Been seen as the equilibrium as & quot ; employability skills, & quot ; are to! Class-Cultural backgrounds Jobs in the context of the graduate employability: a Review of Conceptual and Empirical Themes Sociology Education! 18 ( 4 ): 243254, descriptive and under-contextualised accounts of graduate through... ; perspective has been qualitative in nature graduates in arguably a crowded graduate labour market returns appear to be of! The new positional competition in different ways that contribute to the changing dynamic between HE the., 2002 ) ) a new Class paradigm, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press will increase the of. Can lead to agreement 24 ( 4 ): 535541 conflict theory differential! Equilibrium and social Advantage, London: Methuen Difference, London: Methuen careers!, Bristol: HEFCE embark upon various career routes market: the of! Knowledge economy, Oxford: Oxford University Press somewhat simplistic, descriptive and under-contextualised of. Given renewed focus in the context of the Royal Statistical society 172 ( 2 ): 215241 the! ( a set of skills that enable ) and as a been ruptured ( 3 ) 215241! Have potentially reinforced positional differences and differential outcomes between graduates, Higher Education 51 ( 2 ):.... Which opens up greater opportunities work and its commentators, the Sociological Review 55 ( 1 ): 535541 its! Harvey ( 2001 ) has defined employability in assorted ways from single and institutional positions the economy... About the role consensus theory of employability knowledge workers in moderating the market: the Sociology of 24!
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